Thinking and Problem Solving: Master Cognitive Processes in Psychology

Question 1

Problem-solving strategy that involves breaking down a problem into smaller, manageable units is:

Accepted Answer

Means-ends analysis

Answer

Trial and error

Answer

Insight

Answer

Lateral thinking

Question 2

Which cognitive bias hinders decision-making by favoring information that confirms existing beliefs?

Accepted Answer

Confirmation bias

Answer

Hindsight bias

Answer

Framing effect

Answer

Availability heuristic

Question 3

Cognitive dissonance theory proposes that individuals strive to maintain:

Accepted Answer

Consistency between beliefs and behaviors

Answer

High levels of cognitive dissonance

Answer

Conformity to social norms

Answer

Positive self-esteem

Question 4

Mental representation of a problem or situation that aids in problem-solving and comprehension is termed:

Accepted Answer

Mental model

Answer

Schema

Answer

Prototype

Answer

Cognitive map

Question 5

The tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events that are vivid and memorable is known as:

Accepted Answer

Availability bias

Answer

Representativeness heuristic

Answer

Anchoring effect

Answer

Framing bias

Question 6

The theory that suggests that concepts are formed through gradual accumulation of experiences and adjustments to mental representations is known as:

Accepted Answer

Constructivist theory

Answer

Empirical theory

Answer

Theory of prototypes

Answer

Theory of mental models

Question 7

Which of the following is NOT a recognized stage in the concept formation process?

Accepted Answer

Deductive reasoning

Answer

Categorization

Answer

Generalization

Answer

Abstraction

Question 8

Which cognitive function is primarily responsible for receiving, selecting, and organizing sensory information from the environment?

Accepted Answer

Perception

Answer

Attention

Answer

Memory

Answer

Thinking

Question 9

When making decisions under conditions of uncertainty, which of the following characteristics is typically present?

Accepted Answer

Elevated level of risk

Answer

Comprehensive knowledge of all alternatives

Answer

Absence of time constraints

Answer

Existence of a single optimal solution

Question 10

Which type of concept is defined by a set of necessary and sufficient conditions that determine membership?

Accepted Answer

Classical concept

Answer

Prototype concept

Answer

Fuzzy concept

Answer

Associative concept

Question 11

Which decision-making strategy involves a systematic evaluation of all potential options and their associated outcomes?

Accepted Answer

Rational decision-making

Answer

Satisficing

Answer

Risky shift

Answer

Optimistic bias

Question 12

In problem solving, what is the main purpose of cognitive representations?

Accepted Answer

Creating a mental space to store and work with problem-related information

Answer

Solving problems automatically without conscious thought

Answer

Assessing the correctness of possible solutions

Answer

Sharing problem details with others

Question 13

Which of the following is NOT a stage in the problem-solving process proposed by Newell and Simon?

Accepted Answer

Solution implementation

Answer

Problem structuring

Answer

Solution generation

Answer

Solution evaluation

Question 14

Which of the following heuristics involves breaking a problem down into smaller, more manageable sub-problems?

Accepted Answer

Divide and conquer

Answer

Means-ends analysis

Answer

Generate and test

Answer

Hill climbing

Question 15

The availability heuristic is a cognitive bias that occurs when:

Accepted Answer

People overestimate the frequency or likelihood of events based on their accessibility in memory.

Answer

People tend to remember events that occurred recently more clearly than those that happened in the distant past.

Answer

People are more likely to recall information that aligns with their existing beliefs.

Answer

People have a tendency to make decisions based on their emotions rather than logic.

Question 16

The concept of schemas refers to:

Accepted Answer

Mental frameworks that organize and interpret information

Answer

Long-term memories of specific events or experiences

Answer

Automatic and effortless cognitive processes

Answer

Cognitive distortions that lead us to misinterpret reality

Question 17

The process of forming a hypothesis involves:

Accepted Answer

Developing a tentative explanation for an observation or problem

Answer

Testing a hypothesis through experimentation or research

Answer

Accepting or rejecting a hypothesis based on the evidence

Answer

Reformulating a hypothesis based on new information

Question 18

Which problem-solving theory suggests a sudden understanding of the solution, often referred to as an 'aha' moment?

Accepted Answer

Gestalt Theory

Answer

Information-Processing Theory

Answer

Cognitive Bias Theory

Answer

Socio-Cognitive Theory

Question 19

Which of the following problem-solving approaches involves adapting existing knowledge and skills to address novel situations?

Accepted Answer

Analogical problem solving: Using similarities to known problems.

Answer

Inductive reasoning: Drawing generalizations from specific observations.

Answer

Heuristic reasoning: Using rules of thumb to simplify complex problems.

Answer

Deductive logic: Applying general principles to specific cases.

Question 20

According to the concept of mental models, which of the following statements is accurate?

Accepted Answer

People often use internal representations of knowledge and situations to reason and make decisions.

Answer

Mental models are always completely accurate and reliable.

Answer

Mental models cannot be modified or updated based on new information.

Answer

Mental models have no influence on how people make choices and solve problems.

Question 21

Which of the following characteristics is associated with divergent thinking?

Accepted Answer

Generating a variety of unique and potentially unrelated ideas.

Answer

Focusing on finding a single, correct answer.

Answer

Emphasizing logical and analytical reasoning.

Answer

Adhering strictly to established rules and conventions.

Question 22

Which of the following concepts refers to the way information is presented and its impact on the choices people make?

Accepted Answer

Framing: How information is presented influences decision-making.

Answer

Decision structure: The logical organization of decision-making tasks.

Answer

Emotional state: The influence of emotions on decision-making.

Answer

Resource availability: The effect of limited resources on decision-making.

Question 23

Which problem-solving technique involves breaking down a problem into smaller, more manageable components?

Accepted Answer

Means-ends analysis: Decomposing a problem into subgoals.

Answer

Lateral thinking: Using unconventional approaches to generate ideas.

Answer

Mind mapping: Visualizing ideas and relationships using a diagram.

Answer

Backtracking: Revising previous steps to find a different path to a solution.

Question 24

Which of the following is an essential aspect of critical thinking?

Accepted Answer

Evaluating the validity and reliability of information.

Answer

Accepting information without questioning its accuracy.

Answer

Relying primarily on intuition and personal beliefs.

Answer

Focusing on emotional reactions rather than logical reasoning.

Question 25

Which of the following is an advantage of using heuristics in decision-making?

Accepted Answer

Increased speed and efficiency.

Answer

Guarantee of finding the optimal solution.

Answer

Elimination of all cognitive biases.

Answer

Accuracy under all circumstances.

Question 26

Which of the following terms describes the process of acquiring new concepts and knowledge through experience and interaction with the environment?

Accepted Answer

Concept formation: Learning new concepts from interactions.

Answer

Problem solving: Finding solutions to challenges.

Answer

Decision making: Choosing the best course of action.

Answer

Critical thinking: Analyzing and evaluating information.

Question 27

Which term describes the mental shortcut that simplifies problem-solving?

Accepted Answer

Heuristic

Answer

Algorithm

Answer

Insight

Answer

Syllogism

Question 28

Which term refers to the ability to generate multiple and diverse solutions to a problem?

Accepted Answer

Divergent thinking

Answer

Convergent thinking

Answer

Lateral thinking

Answer

Creative thinking

Question 29

Which of the following is NOT a key stage in the problem-solving process?

Accepted Answer

Emotional regulation

Answer

Problem definition

Answer

Hypothesis generation

Answer

Solution implementation

Question 30

Which cognitive bias is characterized by a tendency to overestimate the likelihood of rare events?

Accepted Answer

Availability heuristic

Answer

Confirmation bias

Answer

Framing effect

Answer

Illusory correlation

Question 31

The theory of mind refers to the ability to understand and reason about:

Accepted Answer

Both of the above

Answer

One's own mental processes

Answer

The mental processes of others

Question 32

Which cognitive process is involved in the ability to fluently generate creative ideas?

Accepted Answer

Divergent thinking

Answer

Convergent thinking

Answer

Analytical thinking

Answer

Critical thinking

Question 33

The framing effect refers to the phenomenon where the way a problem is presented:

Accepted Answer

Both of the above

Answer

Affects the perceived likelihood of an event

Answer

Influences the decision-making process

Question 34

Which decision-making bias involves being overly sure about your judgments and choices?

Accepted Answer

Overconfidence bias

Answer

Anchoring bias

Answer

Availability heuristic

Answer

Hindsight bias

Question 35

According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the process of integrating new information into an existing schema is known as:

Accepted Answer

Assimilation

Answer

Accommodation

Answer

Equilibration

Answer

Organization

Question 36

What is the term for the cognitive process by which individuals mentally represent and manipulate information?

Accepted Answer

Cognition

Answer

Reasoning

Answer

Deduction

Answer

Induction

Question 37

What cognitive process involves breaking down a complex problem into smaller, more manageable units?

Accepted Answer

Chunking

Answer

Means-ends analysis

Answer

Planning

Answer

Monitoring

Question 38

According to the Dual-Process Theory of Reasoning, which of the following is a characteristic of System 1 thinking?

Accepted Answer

Fast, intuitive, and effortless

Answer

Slow, deliberate, and analytical

Answer

Logical and rule-based

Answer

Creative and imaginative

Question 39

What is the term for the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of an event occurring because it is easily recalled?

Accepted Answer

Availability heuristic

Answer

Confirmation bias

Answer

Framing effect

Answer

Hindsight bias

Question 40

According to the information-processing model of problem solving, what is the final stage of the process?

Accepted Answer

Evaluation and feedback

Answer

Solution implementation

Answer

Verification

Answer

Hypothesis generation

Question 41

Cognitive psychology defines 'mental models' as:

Accepted Answer

Internal representations of external situations

Answer

The ability to plan and simulate actions mentally

Answer

The storage and retrieval of long-term memories

Answer

The use of heuristics to make quick decisions

Question 42

Divergent thinking is characterized by:

Accepted Answer

Generating multiple, original ideas

Answer

Producing a single, correct solution

Answer

Focusing on logical reasoning

Answer

Evaluating ideas critically

Question 43

Metacognition primarily involves:

Accepted Answer

Awareness of one's own thoughts and thought processes

Answer

The ability to make accurate decisions

Answer

The use of problem-solving strategies

Answer

The storage of information in memory

Question 44

The Einstellung effect refers to the:

Accepted Answer

Tendency to persist with a previously successful strategy even when it is no longer effective

Answer

Ability to generate multiple, creative solutions to a problem

Answer

Influence of emotions on decision-making

Answer

Use of heuristics to simplify decision-making

Question 45

According to Piaget, a key characteristic of formal operational thought is:

Accepted Answer

The ability to think abstractly and hypothetically

Answer

The use of concrete, sensory information to solve problems

Answer

The development of egocentrism

Answer

The inability to understand the concept of conservation

Question 46

The cognitive revolution in psychology highlighted the importance of:

Accepted Answer

The mind and internal mental processes

Answer

Behaviorism in understanding human cognition

Answer

Introspection as a research method

Answer

Social factors in shaping cognition

Question 47

Framing a problem involves:

Accepted Answer

Defining the problem and identifying its key elements

Answer

Generating potential solutions to the problem

Answer

Evaluating and selecting the best solution

Answer

Implementing the chosen solution

Question 48

Which stage is NOT involved in the concept formation process?

Accepted Answer

Empirical testing

Answer

Identification of similarities

Answer

Generalization

Answer

Abstraction

Question 49

According to the Gestalt approach, problem solving involves:

Accepted Answer

Finding a solution that reorganizes the problem elements

Answer

Breaking the problem into smaller, manageable parts

Answer

Attempting multiple solutions through trial and error

Answer

Drawing analogy from previous experiences to solve the current problem

Question 50

Which cognitive bias is characterized by overestimating the likelihood of an event based on how readily instances of it come to mind?

Accepted Answer

Availability heuristic

Answer

Confirmation bias

Answer

Representative heuristic

Answer

Framing effect

Question 51

In Piaget's theory, the cognitive stage during which individuals develop the ability to think abstractly and reason logically is known as:

Accepted Answer

Formal operational thought

Answer

Concrete operational thought

Answer

Preoperational thought

Answer

Sensorimotor thought

Question 52

Which of the following is a characteristic of a heuristic search strategy?

Accepted Answer

It is efficient in finding solutions, but not necessarily the optimal one

Answer

It guarantees finding the optimal solution

Answer

It explores all possible solutions systematically

Answer

It requires complete knowledge of the problem space

Question 53

The cognitive process responsible for bringing together information from various sources and forming a coherent representation is:

Accepted Answer

Integration

Answer

Attention

Answer

Memory

Answer

Reasoning

Question 54

Which of the following is a core principle of design thinking?

Accepted Answer

Iterative user-centered approach

Answer

Reliance on expert opinion only

Answer

Focus on developing cost-effective solutions

Answer

Linear problem-solving process

Question 55

The tendency to seek information that confirms our existing beliefs while avoiding contradictory information is known as:

Accepted Answer

Confirmation bias

Answer

Groupthink

Answer

Hindsight bias

Answer

Availability heuristic

Question 56

Which theory of concept formation emphasizes the role of language in defining and categorizing concepts?

Accepted Answer

Semantic Network Theory

Answer

Prototype Theory

Answer

Exemplar Theory

Answer

Theory-Theory

Question 57

In problem solving, breaking down a complex problem into smaller, more manageable sub-problems is known as:

Accepted Answer

Decomposition

Answer

Means-end analysis

Answer

Heuristic search

Answer

Analogy

Question 58

A key characteristic of effective decision-making is:

Accepted Answer

Consideration of all relevant alternatives

Answer

Emotional bias

Answer

Impulsivity

Answer

Lack of planning

Question 59

The tendency to rely on easily accessible information when making decisions is known as:

Accepted Answer

Availability heuristic

Answer

Confirmation bias

Answer

Framing effect

Answer

Anchoring bias

Question 60

The mental representation of a problem that includes its initial state, goal state, and operators is called:

Accepted Answer

Problem space

Answer

Search tree

Answer

Production system

Answer

Cognitive map

Question 61

A limitation of the satisficing decision-making strategy is that it:

Accepted Answer

May lead to suboptimal choices

Answer

Is computationally expensive

Answer

Is prone to biases

Answer

Is not suitable for complex problems

Question 62

The idea that decision-makers often overweight small probabilities and underweight large probabilities is called:

Accepted Answer

Prospect theory

Answer

Framing effect

Answer

Loss aversion

Answer

Cognitive dissonance

Question 63

According to Bruner's theory of concept formation, what is the primary function of categorization?

Accepted Answer

To group objects based on shared characteristics

Answer

To generate new concepts

Answer

To evaluate the accuracy of conceptual hypotheses

Answer

To create mental representations of concepts

Question 64

What is the primary distinction between implicit and explicit memory?

Accepted Answer

Implicit memory is procedural and explicit memory is declarative

Answer

Implicit memory is conscious and explicit memory is unconscious.

Answer

Implicit memory is short-term and explicit memory is long-term.

Answer

Implicit memory is episodic and explicit memory is semantic.